Wikipedista:JiriZamecnik/Překladiště

Stührling Tourbillon Movement (high resolution).

In horology, a tourbillon ({{IPAc-en|icon}}; {{IPA-fr|tuʁbijɔ̃}} "whirlwind") is an addition to the mechanics of a watch escapement. Developed around 1795 by the French-Swiss watchmaker Abraham-Louis Breguet from an earlier idea by the English chronometer maker John Arnold, a tourbillon aims to counter the effects of gravity by mounting the escapement and balance wheel in a rotating cage, to negate the effect of gravity when the timepiece (and thus the escapement) is stuck in a certain position.

Originally an attempt to improve accuracy, tourbillons are still included in some expensive modern watches as a novelty and demonstration of watchmaking virtuosity. The mechanism is usually exposed on the watch's face to show it off.

Úpadek a znovuobnovení zájmu, moderní vývoj

Král Artuš v novověké literatuře

S koncem středověku upadá zájem o artušovskou legendu. Ačkoliv Maloryho anglická verze hlavních francouzských romantických zpracování došla obliby, od 16. století docházelo k útokům na historickou důvěryhodnost — považovanou od dob Geoffreyho z Monmouthu za jistou — jak legendy o Artušovi, tak i celého legendárního odkazu Británie. Polydore Vergil, jedna z postav anglického humanismu, například — k dobovému zděšení velšských a anglických starožitníků — odmítl, že by Artuš mohl být vládcem postřímského impéria; toto tvrzení se přitom stalo součástí postgeoffreyovské kronikářské tradice. Změny ve společnosti, spojené s koncem středověku a renesancí také vedly ke ztrátě kulturního vlivu artušovského cyklu - následkem toho bylo Maloryho Le Morte d'Arthur znovu vytištěno až v roce 1817, téměř 200 let po předchozí publikaci z roku 1634. Námět krále Artuše nebyl zcela opuštěn, ale až do začátku 19. století mu byl přikládán malý význam a často sloužil pouze jako médium pro alegorie na politickou situace 17. a 18. století. Například epická díla Princ Artuš a Král Artuš Richarda Blackmorea z let 1695 a 1697 zobrazují Artuše jako alegorii pro spor Viléma Oranžského a Jakuba II. Stuarta. K nejoblíbenějším artušovským příběhům tohoto období patřil příběh o Tomu Thumbovi (Palečkovi), nejprve publikovaný ve pormě tzv. chapbooks, později zpracovaný v politických hráchh Henryho Fieldinga. I v nich je však postava krále Artuše pozměněna, tentokrát za účelem dosažení komického efektu.

I na začátku 21. století bylo hráno dílo Johna Drydena Král Artuš z tohoto období, především kvůli hudbě Henryho Purcella.

Tennyson a oživení

[[Soubor:Idylls of the King 1.jpg|thumb|upright|Ilustrace Artuše a Merlina k dílu Alfreda Tennysona Idylls of the King, Gustave Doré, 1868 Rozvoj romantismu a novogotiky na počátku 19. století vedl k znovuobnovení zájmu o artušovskou legendu a středověké romance. Nová pravidla chování pro gentlemana 19. století byla vytvořena podle ideálů rytířství, ztělesňovaných „Artušem z romancí“. První dopady tohoto oživeného zájmu se projevují roku 1816, kdy bylo - poprvé od roku 1634 - vytištěno dílo Thomase Maloryho Le Morte d'Arthur Zpočátku byly středověké artušovské legendy objektem zvláštního zájmu básníků; jejich stopy lze nalézt například v díle Williama Wordswortha "The Egyptian Maid" (1835), alegorii na Svatý grál. Obzvláště mezi nimi vynikal Alfred Tennyson, jehož první artušovská báseň "The Lady of Shalott" byla publikována roku 1832. Ačkoliv Artuš v některých jeho dílech hraje pouze vedlejší roli, podobně jako v středověkých romantických zpracováních, největší slávy došla kniha Idylls of the King (Královy idyly), kompletní zpracování Artušova života, určené pro čtenáře viktoriánské éry. Po svém vydání roku 1859 dosáhlo dílo 10000 prodaných výtisků během prvního týdne. V Idylách je Artuš zobrazen jako symbol ideálního muže, jehož pokus stvořit dokonálé království selže pouze vinou lidské slabosti. Tennysonovo dílo našlo mnoho následovníků, vyvolalo obecný zájem v legendu o Artušovi a jeho postavu jako takovou a pomohlo rozšířit Maloryho knihu mezi širší vrstvy obyvatelstva. Jen krátce po vydání Idyl, roku 1862 bylo otištěno první moderní přepracování Le Morte d'Arthur. Ještě do konce 19. století se toto dílo dočkalo šesti edic a pěti konkurenčních knih.

This interest in the "Arthur of romance" and his associated stories continued through the 19th century and into the 20th, and influenced poets such as William Morris and Pre-Raphaelite artists including Edward Burne-Jones. Even the humorous tale of Tom Thumb, which had been the primary manifestation of Arthur's legend in the 18th century, was rewritten after the publication of Idylls. While Tom maintained his small stature and remained a figure of comic relief, his story now included more elements from the medieval Arthurian romances, and Arthur is treated more seriously and historically in these new versions. The revived Arthurian romance also proved influential in the United States, with such books as Sidney Lanier's The Boy's King Arthur (1880) reaching wide audiences and providing inspiration for Mark Twain's satiric A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889). Although the "Arthur of romance" was sometimes central to these new Arthurian works (as he was in Burne-Jones's The Last Sleep of Arthur in Avalon, 1881–1898), on other occasions he reverted back to his medieval status and is either marginalised or even missing entirely, with Wagner's Arthurian operas providing a notable instance of the latter. Furthermore, the revival of interest in Arthur and the Arthurian tales did not continue unabated. By the end of the 19th century, it was confined mainly to Pre-Raphaelite imitators, and it could not avoid being affected by the First World War, which damaged the reputation of chivalry and thus interest in its medieval manifestations and Arthur as chivalric role model. The romance tradition did, however, remain sufficiently powerful to persuade Thomas Hardy, Laurence Binyon and John Masefield to compose Arthurian plays, and T. S. Eliot alludes to the Arthur myth (but not Arthur) in his poem The Waste Land, which mentions the Fisher King.

Modern legend

[[File:Arthur-Pyle How Arthur drew forth ye sword.JPG|left|thumb|upright|How Arthur drew forth ye sword, by Howard Pyle. The sword in the anvil or sword in the stone chapter of The Story of King Arthur and His Knights. (1903)]] {{See also|King Arthur in various media}} In the latter half of the 20th century, the influence of the romance tradition of Arthur continued, through novels such as T. H. White's The Once and Future King (1958) and Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Mists of Avalon (1982) in addition to comic strips such as Prince Valiant (from 1937 onward). Tennyson had reworked the romance tales of Arthur to suit and comment upon the issues of his day, and the same is often the case with modern treatments too. Bradley's tale, for example, takes a feminist approach to Arthur and his legend, in contrast to the narratives of Arthur found in medieval materials, and American authors often rework the story of Arthur to be more consistent with values such as equality and democracy. The romance Arthur has become popular in film and theatre as well. T. H. White's novel was adapted into the Lerner-Loewe stage musical Camelot (1960) and the Disney animated film The Sword in the Stone (1963); Camelot, with its focus on the love of Lancelot and Guinevere and the cuckolding of Arthur, was itself made into a film of the same name in 1967. The romance tradition of Arthur is particularly evident and, according to critics, successfully handled in Robert Bresson's Lancelot du Lac (1974), Eric Rohmer's Perceval le Gallois (1978) and perhaps John Boorman's fantasy film Excalibur (1981); it is also the main source of the material utilised in the Arthurian spoof Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975).

The combat of Arthur and Mordred, illustrated by N.C. Wyeth for The Boy's King Arthur, 1922

Re-tellings and re-imaginings of the romance tradition are not the only important aspect of the modern legend of King Arthur. Attempts to portray Arthur as a genuine historical figure of c. 500 AD, stripping away the "romance", have also emerged. As Taylor and Brewer have noted, this return to the medieval "chronicle tradition"' of Geoffrey of Monmouth and the Historia Brittonum is a recent trend which became dominant in Arthurian literature in the years following the outbreak of the Second World War, when Arthur's legendary resistance to Germanic invaders struck a chord in Britain. Clemence Dane's series of radio plays, The Saviours (1942), used a historical Arthur to embody the spirit of heroic resistance against desperate odds, and Robert Sherriff's play The Long Sunset (1955) saw Arthur rallying Romano-British resistance against the Germanic invaders. This trend towards placing Arthur in a historical setting is also apparent in historical and fantasy novels published during this period. In recent years the portrayal of Arthur as a real hero of the 5th century has also made its way into film versions of the Arthurian legend, most notably the TV series Arthur of the Britons and the feature films King Arthur (2004) and The Last Legion (2007). The 2008 BBC series Merlin is a reimagining of the legend in which the future King Arthur and Merlin are young contemporaries. Camelot (2011) is an exclusive short series of episodes which depict Arthur in ancient Briton and his struggle for the throne. Also, a recent Disney film, Avalon High has been released, the story about a modern day King Arthur and his knights of the round table.

Legacy as a role model

During the Middle Ages, Arthur was made a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes encapsulating all the ideal qualities of chivalry. His life was thus proposed as a valuable subject for study by those aspiring to chivalric status. This aspect of Arthur in the Nine Worthies was popularised firstly through literature and was thereafter adopted as a frequent subject by painters and sculptors. Arthur has also been used as a model for modern-day behaviour. In the 1930s, the Order of the Fellowship of the Knights of the Round Table was formed in Britain to promote Christian ideals and Arthurian notions of medieval chivalry. In the United States, hundreds of thousands of boys and girls joined Arthurian youth groups, such as the Knights of King Arthur, in which Arthur and his legends were promoted as wholesome exemplars.

Legacy in popular culture

Arthur's diffusion within contemporary culture goes beyond obviously Arthurian endeavours, with Arthurian names being regularly attached to objects, buildings and places. As Norris J. Lacy has observed, "The popular notion of Arthur appears to be limited, not surprisingly, to a few motifs and names, but there can be no doubt of the extent to which a legend born many centuries ago is profoundly embedded in modern culture at every level."